What is life: The long ascent from matter to mind.

Thomas R. Verny considers why defining life remains difficult and surveys research tracing life’s rise from prebiotic chemistry and LUCA to complex cognition.

Thomas R. Verny asks whether science can clearly distinguish living systems from inert matter and why that question remains unresolved. He uses simple examples, such as a dog and a toy, to show intuitive differences and then highlights scientific puzzles like whether viruses count as alive. The essay reviews recent research and meetings that probe steps from chemistry to cells and from simple agency to cognition. It presents a range of perspectives rather than a single answer. Key points: - Definitions of life are contested; metabolic criteria such as growth or energy use have exceptions (for example, flames or crystals) and viruses challenge simple rules. - Geological and evolutionary timelines cited include LUCA around 4.2 billion years ago, the origin of nuclei-bearing cells about 1.8–2.7 billion years ago, multicellularity about 1.6–2 billion years ago, the Cambrian diversification at 540 million years ago, central nervous systems by about 520 million years ago, and anatomically modern humans around 300,000 years ago. - Laboratory and theoretical work discussed includes RNA nanotechnology experiments (Luc Jaeger) that test how simple molecules self-organize, and a focus on cognition and agency from researchers such as Mike Levin. - New or debated ideas include the BEEM proposal by Raju Pookottil that organisms may direct aspects of their evolution, and growing evidence that carbon-rich asteroids could have delivered or fostered prebiotic chemistry (missions referenced include OSIRIS-REx and Hayabusa2). - The essay notes NASA’s working definition reported as “a self-sustaining chemical system capable of Darwinian evolution” and frames living systems as dissipative structures that use free energy to maintain order. Summary: The piece presents the question of what counts as life as an active scientific debate addressed across disciplines from chemistry to astrobiology and philosophy. Continued experimental and theoretical work is expanding the conceptual landscape, while the specific resolution of how life emerged and how it should be defined remains undetermined at this time.